-Author Anil Chawla
All over India and in almost every part of the world, there are millions of people who call themselves Hindu. Yet, the question “Who is a Hindu?” is often raised. Some people define Hinduism on geographical basis, while some others do so on the basis of system of worship and belief; there are others who link Hinduism to ancient Indian culture. This controversy about definition is unique to Hinduism. Other religions like Islam, Christianity etc. are devoid of any such dispute since they are based on one book. The belief in a sacred book is fundamental to such religions. Anyone believing in the book is a follower while anyone not believing in the book is an outsider to the religion. A Hindu is under no compulsion to believe in any book or any prophet or even a single system of worship or hall of worship. The freedom that a Hindu has makes it difficult to define Hinduism.
Before proceeding any further, one must understand the historical background that has led to this controversy. Hindus have been subjected to nearly a thousand years of slavery. The struggle for existence that Hindus faced during this long period is unique in human history. To understand this glorious struggle, one must compare Indian history with American history. It was approximately the same time when a group of persons reached America and another group of persons reached India. Both the groups were from the same part of the world and were of the same white race. At that time, population of America and India was nearly equal. Today, the original inhabitants of America have become almost extinct. Their civilization, culture and religion is almost dead; there are of course some remnants which are objects of wonder and are kept as curios displayed in a museum. The atrocities in India were identical to those in America, but the original inhabitants of India survived. A magnificent building that was an inspiration to many has been demolished completely and what has been left behind is only a mass of rubble.
All the traditional institutions of the Indian society were systematically destroyed during nearly a thousand years of foreign rule (first Islamic and later British, Portugese and French). Books were burnt. Persons who were active in preservation and growth of knowledge were forced by all possible means to give up their pursuits. Attempts were made to remove all symbols of Hindu religion from the surface of the earth. A grand civilization was reduced to ashes. Today, Hindu finds himself sitting with these ashes and a few semi-burnt pieces of what was once a magnificent building. He has a dream to reconstruct the grand building, to get back to the glory that seems almost fictional.
When Lech Walesa became the first non-communist President of Poland he said that it is easy to make fish-soup from a fish but it is very difficult to make a fish out of fish-soup. If the same example were to be applied to the Indian society and nation, one finds that India does not even have the soup - the colonial masters drank it. There are only a few skeletal remains. The present generation of Hindus has to reconstruct a new living civilization and rebuild the cultural edifice from these skeletal remains.
Hindus have survived the long arduous journey but have lost a lot. The biggest loss has been of self-identity. A person who has just escaped from a big terrible fire is primarily concerned with his burnt skin and the wounds rather than the torn clothes. The first fifty years of post-independent India have been spent on arranging for essentials for livelihood. Forgetting the old wounds, taking control of the life as it is, the Indian psyche has slowly started looking at its own identity and has started asking questions about itself. The question “Who is a Hindu?” is the first step in this search for self-identity. It is an attempt to seek the foundation stone for Hindu Reconstruction and Renaissance.
It will be relevant to discuss the various definitions of Hindu in vogue. One definition defines Hindu on geographical basis. It is said that the word “Hindu” is derived from the word “Sindhu” based on the contention that the aggressors from the Western side started calling persons living near river Sindhu as Hindu. Geographical definition of Hindu treats every person living in Indian sub-continent or having some emotional attachment to the Indian sub-continent as a Hindu. This is possibly the most narrow and restricted definition of Hindu. A slave often starts seeing himself through the eyes of the master. If it is accepted that Hindu is a distorted version of Sindhu, it will also have to be accepted that there was no Hindu in existence before the attack from the western side. If it is accepted that only a person living on Indian soil is Hindu, the problem would arise about Hindu temples of Thailand. It is a well accepted fact that at one time, Hindu religion and culture exerted strong influence on the whole of Asia. If Hindu religion is based on devotion towards a block of land, it is obvious that Hinduism cannot spread beyond that block of land. If an appeal is made to the Hindus living across the world to be devoted to the Indian soil, such an appeal can possibly serve some vested interests but it will block the growth of Hindu religion. In such a case, instead of becoming a global ideological revolution, Hindu religion will become a vehicle to satisfy the interests of inhabitants of a particular land-mass.
The traditionalist definition of Hindu prescribes that anyone accepting the ancient Indian culture and traditions is Hindu. The philosophical bankruptcy of the traditionalist definition is of the same order as that of the geographist definition. The traditionalist mind is inherently conservative and is opposed to all change and growth. Everything old is considered good, while everything modern is looked down upon. The traditionalist treats the “puratan” (ancient) as “sanatan” (eternal or natural or essential) and sacred. The traditionalist invokes “bhakti” (devotion and faith) to close the mental doors to any fresh thought. This is contrary to the concept of Hindu. A closed mind cannot be the distinguishing feature of a Hindu. If Hindu religion was a closed-minded religion, there would have been no Upanishads and Puranas after Vedas. Diversity of opinion and clash of opinions is a frequent phenomenon in ancient Hindu texts. Considering the ancient as sacred will block the growth of Hinduism. Moreover, when only a few remnants of the ancient are available and the circumstances in the present time and world (desh-kal) are completely different, it is necessary to begin the job of reconstruction and renaissance by starting from first principles and fundamental values. The old can be a guide, but it is necessary to give up the presumption that everything ancient is sacred. Hence, the traditionalist definition of Hinduism is not only incomplete and shallow, it is a big obstacle in the growth of Hinduism.
Often attempts have been made to define Hinduism on the basis of some beliefs and/or symbols. For example - Hindu is one who worships Ram; Hindu is one who worships the cow; Hindu is one who worships Krishna; Hindu is one who considers Ganges to be sacred; Hindu is one who considers the plant of tulasi as sacred; Hindu is one who begins his worship with OM. Each of these is a belief of a section of the Hindus. However, any one of the above individually or some/all of the above taken together cannot be considered to be the fundamental basis of Hinduism. The diversity of opinions and contradictions are too strong. A worshipper of Ram is a Hindu just as a worshipper of formless Supreme Being is also a Hindu; Ganges is considered sacred by many Hindus while there are others who have ridiculed it; idol worshippers are Hindus while there are some Hindus who are opposed to all idolatry worship; the devotees of OM and Gayatri Mantra are Hindus just as someone who considers Krishna to be his/her lover is also a Hindu; there are Hindus who follow a devotional life and there are Hindus who believe in self-attainment through work or knowledge. Clearly, Hinduism cannot be defined on the basis of any one belief or tradition or symbol.
There is one practical definition which is the most well accepted definition of Hindu. Every person whose parents or at least father is/was a Hindu and who has not accepted any other religion is a Hindu. For the past more than hundred years the rulers of India and the so-called guardians of Hinduism have accepted and adopted this definition. As per this definition a person can only be born as a Hindu, there is no way by which a person may adopt Hinduism or be converted to Hinduism. The damage that this definition has done to Hinduism has probably not been done by any other definition. At the time when Hinduism spread from Egypt to Japan, it is certain that there was no such definition of Hinduism. The damage that Hinduism has suffered by stopping the entry of people from other religions is possibly much more than the damage done by Christian missionaries and Islamic aggressors. Various visionaries like Swami Vivekananda, Swami Shradhananda etc. had in unambiguous terms pointed to the damage that Hinduism has suffered on this account. If Hindus are serious about Hindu Renaissance and dream of a glorious future for Hinduism in every part of the world, it will be necessary to make new Hindus in every nook and corner of the world. To do this Hindus must first free themselves of this heredity based (racial) definition of Hindu.
The definition of Hindu that seems plausible treats the word “Hindu” as being made up of two words Ha + Indu. Ha means the sky and Indu means the moon. This can be interpreted to mean that one who spreads cool light like the moon in the sky is a Hindu. Another word associated with Hindu is Bharat. Often the word Bharat is associated with the name of a King. The more logical interpretation is however to treat BHARAT as made up of two words Bha + Rat. Bha means Light and Rat means the one who is full of or saturated with. In other words Bharat means The one Who is full of and spreads light. Looked at carefully, Bharat and Hindu have identical meanings. The word Bharatvarsh has often been used for a large part of land. Varsh means varsha or rain. Combining the meanings of Bharat and varsh we can understand that the word Bharatvarsh was used for the region where the Hindu knowledge rained or had influence. It is not proper to treat Bharat as only the name of a part of land. Instead of the geographical definition of Hindu as the one who lives in the land known as Bharat, it will be proper to say that wherever in the world there are Hindus, they will be full of light and spread light and there will be Bharat.
Another meaning of the word Hindu can also be considered. In Sanskrit, ocean has been called as Indujanak, the father of Indu (moon). The meaning of the word Ha in a Sanskrit dictionary is water as well as sky. If we take a comprehensive view of the meanings of Ha and Indu, we see the complete universe from the ocean to the sky in the word Hindu. Hence, it will be proper to conclude that a Hindu is someone who believes in everything from the ocean to the sky.
The totality of the sky including the earth and the oceans is named as Universe or Cosmos and is known by the word Brahm in Sanskrit. This Universe or Cosmos is shashwat or eternal, in other words it has always been and shall always be, though it may keep changing. Hindu sees himself as a part of the Universe or Cosmos. A Hindu’s belief, faith, actions, lifestyle, thoughts should be in accordance with the rules of the Cosmos. There could possibly be different views about the Cosmos between two persons due to different perspectives. However, if the difference of views is due to different perspectives and not due to pre-conceived notions, both the persons, though holding divergent views are Hindus.
While understanding the word Hindu, it is also necessary to understand the word Dharm. The word Dharan and Dharm have the same root. Dharan means to wear or to carry and Dharm refers to what is put on. Dharm can be compared to clothing. Just as a person changes his clothes as per the time-place and his own personal requirements, the Dharm for a Hindu is constantly changing. This concept of Dharm is neither possible nor imaginable for any one-book-based religion. A hindu’s Dharm, on one hand helps him live his life as per the requirements of the cosmos and on the other hand, assists him in acting as per his own nature and aptitude. Just as cosmos or universe is considered to be constantly changing but shashwat or eternal, Dharm is considered to be under constant change but still sanatan or permanent.
Oneness with the Cosmos and the concept of a Dharm that is in accordance with this oneness can be said to be Hindu Dharm. This complex philosophy has been elaborated by the aphoristic words SATYAM SHIVAM SUNDARAM. The three words define the Hindu way of life as completely and correctly as is ever possible. An English translation of the aphorism can be Truth, Universal Welfare & Nice feelings of the Inner Being. The translation is not very accurate. (Incidentally, it may be mentioned that Greek and early Christian authors also seemed to believe in this triad of Satyam, Shivam, Sundaram. Augustine devotes much space in The City of God to a discussion of Greek philosophy. In the Augustinian synthesis of Christ and Plato, the classical triad of virtues - truth, beauty, and goodness - become part of the Christian ethic.)
It is important to understand each of the concepts to fully appreciate the Hindu mind.
SATYAM –
The first fundamental condition for Hindu Dharm is Satyam or truth. The cosmos or the world is experienced by us through our senses and we make an image of the world or parts of it on our mind. If the image corresponds to the world as it exists, the image is truth or else it is not truth. Our capacities and abilities to see, observe, experience and understand are limited. Hence, our ability to create mental images of the world is limited. Just as four blind men described an elephant in four different ways, we make different images of the world. For example, a biologist and a poet look at a flower in different ways. Hindu accepts this difference in perspective and therefore opinions, while at the same time giving utmost importance to Satyam or truth. If any idea or thought is against truth, a Hindu can never accept it.
The evaluation of the correspondence between the image and the world is by means of evidence or proof. There can be an epistemological debate about the suitability of different types of possible evidence and proof. It is likely that some types of evidence are accepted by one while the same types of evidence are rejected by others. Such a difference of opinion is well-accepted. For example, the experience of God by the inner self has been accepted as sufficient evidence for the existence of God by some while others have refused to accept such experience as evidence. This led to different versions of truth for theists and atheists. But both are Hindus because both believe in Truth. Hinduism is possibly the only major religion of the world which accepted atheism.
It is important to compare the commitment of a Hindu towards truth with that of the followers of other religions. For a Christian, every word in Bible is the ultimate truth. During the reign of the Church, any attempt to even collect evidence that might contradict something written in the Bible was considered blasphemy and was punishable by death. Apparently, some holy book says that a man has more teeth and ribs than a woman has. During the medieval period, it was blasphemy and criminal offence to try to gather evidence against the sacred book by counting the teeth or ribs of men and women. For hundreds of years no one in Europe could hence count teeth or ribs. In any single-book-based religion such problems are likely to occur at some time or the other. Both Christianity and Islam have at some points in their history opposed science since it clashed with the truth as provided in their sacred books.
Hinduism has never and can never be opposed to Science due to the fundamental belief in truth. It was this belief in truth that led to the development and growth of science and knowledge in ancient India. The glow of science and knowledge made the Hindu full of light and the region that was illuminated by this shower of light was called Bharatvarsh.
SHIVAM -
After accepting Truth, it is necessary to go a step further and look at the welfare of the world. Every act, belief and thought of a human being must be evaluated on the basis of the criterion of welfare of the world. An act or belief or thought is not proper or acceptable if it does not promote the welfare of the world even though it may be based on Truth. For example, a person’s strong desire may be a reality or a truth but if the satisfaction of the desire does not lead to universal welfare, it is not proper to permit the person to satisfy his desire.
Just as there can be differences of opinion and perception in matters related to truth, there may be differences of opinion regarding the concept of universal welfare, which may change from time to time and from region to region and also based on the nature and aptitude of various individuals. Such differences of opinion are well accepted and though there may be debate or discussion to resolve the differences, there is no attempt to iron out all differences and arrive at a uniform standard code. The acceptance of differences based on the needs of place-time and individuals has led to Hindu Dharm becoming different for each person, for every region and from time to time. However, if anyone ignores the argument of welfare and advances quotations from any book as an argument, he is not a Hindu.
The concept of SHIVAM as universal welfare based on the realities of time and place is deeply embedded in the Hindu psyche. On various occasions this has been demonstrated. For example India was one of the first few countries in the world to accept abortion since the majority of the population (Hindus) appreciated the benefits of legalized abortion without any religious restrictions. Even in matters like giving electoral rights to women there has been no dispute since the issues are examined on merits rather than on the basis of books written a few centuries ago.
The examples of accepting contradictory actions and beliefs based on different ground realities are too numerous to cite. There are Hindus who are strictly vegetarians while there are others who are permitted to eat meat. There are Hindus who fast on some days during the year while on the same days there are Hindus who would eat meat and offer meat to their family deities. The opposites are always justified by logic of welfare or Shivam as might be existing at that time and place.
SUNDARAM –
Along with Satyam and Shivam, the third fundamental foundation stone of Hindu thought is Sundaram. Anything that leads to nice (or “Su”) feelings in the inner being of a person can be called as SUNDARAM or aesthetic. It is very difficult to define the nice feelings in the inner being and each person may have his own opinion in the matter. The purpose of all arts is to give pleasure by creating nice aesthetic feelings. A Hindu accepts all arts and accepts each person’s version of SUNDARAM. Hindu accepts freedom of the individual in this regard, subject, of course, to Satyam and Shivam.
It may seem strange that something as obvious as aesthetics needs to be defined as a key fundamental block of a belief system. Yet if we look at the treatment of the subject by other religions, the distinction is too glaring. Islam treats all visual arts like painting and sculpture as forbidden and even puts strictures on music. Christian churches have also from time to time made attempts to prescribe what is right and what is wrong in arts. In more than five thousand years of history of Hinduism there have never been any attempts of similar nature.
SATYAM SHIVAM SUNDARAM –
The triad expresses completely and comprehensively the essence of Hindu Dharm. It may well be asked that which of the three is more important and in case of conflict, which one should be given priority. There have been different opinions in this regard, yet a prominent view has been that the conflicts among the three are only apparent. Deep within there is a unity in the three elements of the triad. So, any fundamental conflict is not possible. This school of thought believes that the aphorism literally translates as Satyam is Shivam and Shivam is Sundaram. In other words the aphorism affirms the unity of the triad. So a Hindu is expected to follow all three elements of the triad and give due importance to each in his life. However, even while giving due importance to all three, it is likely that an individual may emphasize one or the other element depending on one’s own nature and aptitude. For example, truth may be more important for a scientist while aesthetics may be the central concern for an artist. Both are members of one unified society and many such different persons combine together to form a balanced society which has the correct combination of Satyam, Shivam and Sundaram.
SATYAM SHIVAM SUNDARAM can also be expressed as Science, Ethics and Art. Any one who accepts the triad as fundamental basis of his belief system is a Hindu, irrespective of his/her geographic location, race, national loyalties, system of worship, deity of worship, food habits, language, etc. Defined in this manner, Hindu Dharm becomes a truly global religion of the modern world. Acquiring strengths from its ancient roots Hindu Dharm becomes the human-values-based religion of the modern scientific age. The ability to constantly transform itself enables Hindu Dharm to rejuvenate and always be fresh and new. Hindu Dharm is neither “opium for the masses” nor does it bind anyone in perennial chains. Hindu Dharm is the liberator of mankind and is an engine of growth, prosperity and fulfillment for the individual as well as for the society on a long term sustainable basis.
From the muddy cesspool of history, one can always pick some instances that support the above view and also some that do not. History cannot and should not become the guide or touchstone for philosophy. However, surprisingly the above definition of Hindu Dharm finds extensive support in an analysis of the Indian psyche as it evolved over the centuries and faced a diverse set of circumstances. But the most surprising part comes when one tries to understand the preachings of Lord Jesus Christ in the light of the basic principles of Hinduism.
If one studies the preachings of Lord Jesus Christ, devoid of the views of others who followed him as well as of the various churches, one finds a striking similarity between him and many Hindu saints (for example Sai Baba of Shirdi). The concept of church was not given by Lord Jesus Christ. Neither did the Lord write the Bible nor any other book. It may not be improper to say that the Lord was a Hindu. The relationship between the teachings of Lord Jesus Christ and the essentials of Hinduism needs to be studied. It may also be interesting to explore the etymology of the word Christianity which has an identical sound as “KRISHNA NEETI” (the ethics of Lord Krishna). This is not the subject of this essay and will need more research. However, based on initial impressions, it may well be concluded that Lord Jesus preached a version of Hinduism and was crucified for his revolutionary ideas. The scenario that seems likely is that after the death of Jesus, his followers started a process of compromises which led to the acceptance of Old Testament, writing of the New Testament in a form acceptable to the ruling classes and foundation of the Church.
It may be further added that just as Lord Jesus Christ’s sayings were misused and distorted by Church, there are attempts to narrow and restrict Hinduism. The churchification of Hinduism is a danger that needs to be guarded against. In recent years, people who know nothing of Hinduism have emerged as the self-proclaimed defenders of the faith. They are interpreting Hinduism in their own way and are declaring their versions to be the official versions. For a religion which does not even prohibit the eating of human flesh, vegetarianism and non-violence are being declared as fundamental values. Hindus are being asked to be loyal to a geographic entity or a nation. There is even an attempt to show that Hindus are one race. The harm that such ignorant proclaimed defenders of the faith may inflict on Hinduism is enormous. It must be remembered that the dark ages of Europe were not a result of anything that Lord Jesus said.
European Renaissance was an attempt to break the vice-like grip of the church on all aspects of European life. It was a revolt against the Church and not against Lord Jesus Christ. As years have passed, the influence of church in European (and American) life has decreased considerably. Nowadays, a Christian takes almost all important decisions of his life based on his own self assessment and intellect. The life of a Christian is now regulated more and more by SATYAM SHIVAM SUNDARAM though he/she himself/herself would not define it that way. Concern with ecological considerations and serious attempts to live life as per nature’s laws can also be seen as an attempt to attain the oneness with cosmos which is most fundamental to Hinduism.
The move of the world to a more rational and humane existence is in fact a move towards Hinduism. It is time that Hindus realized this and took up the leadership in this ongoing historical movement which has transformed the world in the past four/five centuries. As men and women across the world (from all races and communities) understand and adopt the “Global Religion of the Modern World” – Hindu Dharm based on Satyam, Shivam, Sundaram – they will not only transform their own lives but will also make the world a better place to live in.
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Monday, 26 September 2011
Sunday, 25 September 2011
Religion in India:Hinduism, Culture, and Conflict
Religion in India:Hinduism, Culture, and Conflict
Background of Lesson: Students will learn the basic tenets and features of Hinduism,
including its focus on multiple-god worship, the concept of reincarnation, and the
historical caste system. Students will then relate this to the formation of India and the
circumstances that have created religion-based conflict in recent years.
Objectives:
Students will be able to:
o Identify and understand the basic principles of Hinduism, including the system
of worship and the central concept of reincarnation.
o Understand various connections between Hinduism and general Indian culture,
including its history with a caste system.
o Incorporate basic knowledge of India’s history into their understanding of
religious conflict, especially the conflict over Kashmir, that persists in India
today, centuries later.
o Relate the Hindu-Muslim conflict to other instances of religious rifts across
other countries and periods.
Lesson Plan: Day One
The Basic Tenets of Hinduism
Note: This lesson can be extended to two days with the implementation of a small
research project and a more in-depth look at various facets of Hinduism. See numbers 4
and 5 for details.
1. (10 minutes) - Brainstorm what students know about India. What images,
names, places, ideas, etc. come to mind when you mention the word “India”?
Write their ideas on the board.
Explain that 86% of Indians are Hindu and that Hinduism has had a profound
effect on shaping the country and the way Indians live their lives.
Ask students the following: Which of the things on this list do you think are
related to Hinduism? (For example, if students mention anything about castes,
cows, the Ganges, etc., these can all be related to Hinduism.) Transfer their
ideas to a new list about Hinduism. Ask them what else they know about
Hinduism, if anything.
2. (15 minutes) - Provide students with background information on Hinduism by
giving them the handout “Basic Beliefs of Hinduism” (Appendix 1). Read the
two introductory paragraphs together and the section entitled “Gods and
Goddesses.” Then stop and ask the following questions:
o In what ways is Hinduism similar to other religions you know about? In
what ways is it different?
o What’s the significance of water in Hinduism? How is water regarded in
other religions, either in similar or different ways?
o How do Hindus worship? How does worship fit into their everyday lives?
3. (15 minutes) - Now read, individually or as a class, the second part of the
handout, “Reincarnation and Castes.” Following the reading, have another
discussion:
o How does the concept of reincarnation fit in with India’s caste system?
o What do you think of the caste system? What would it be like to be an
“untouchable”? A Brahmin?
o What do you think is happening to the caste system now in India in the
wake of modern influences and globalization?
o Why are some traditions so difficult to let go?
Now turn the discussion toward individual students’ experiences that relate to
the concept of a caste system. Ask the following questions:
o Have you ever felt like you were part of a distinct class?
o In what ways do you identify yourself? In other words, what labels do
you use to describe yourself? Encourage students to come up with
identities related to gender, ethnicity, skin color, religion, sexual
orientation, activities, class, and anything else they suggest.
o Ask students to think about the ways in which their own identity factors
are different from or similar to others’ labels. How and when do these
identities matter?
4. (10 minutes or longer if you extend it to Day Two) - Share pictorial
representations of the various gods (see Appendix 2). Gather students’
impressions and talk about the characteristics of each god based on his or her
appearance. If you have extra time and access to the Internet, have students,
either individually or in small groups, research different Hindu gods and their
roles in the faith as a whole. Have them look for pictures, descriptions, and
functions and share their findings with the class.
5. (15 minutes or more, best for Day Two) - Read the handout on food in India as
it relates to Hinduism (see Appendix 3).
o What’s the role of the cow in Hinduism?
o Are there any other religions that hold certain animals in high esteem?
o How are Hindus’ diets affected by their faith?
o What are some other food restrictions you know of that are based on
religion?
o Have you ever changed your diet because of your belief system?
Lesson Plan: Day Two
The Birth of India and Religious Conflict
1. (15 minutes) - Brief students on the history of India (see Appendix 4),
including the nature of Hindu-Muslim relations and the conflict over Kashmir.
Share with students the timeline of India’s history (see first link in Appendix 5);
to avoid overwhelming students with details, you might want to make the
timeline into a transparency and point out key dates.
Focus your subsequent discussion on the conflict over Kashmir:
o What’s the basis for the conflict in Kashmir? (Feel free to supplement
this talk with other articles. See Appendix 5 for links.)
o What other states can you think of that have been created on the basis
of religion? What kinds of problems persist in these countries, either
within the country or surrounding it (problems with their neighbors)?
o Within our own country, what kinds of religious division do you
experience or witness?
2. (35 minutes) - Explain to students that the conflict between Muslims and
Hindus in India and Pakistan is not limited to the fight over Kashmir. In recent
years, various holy sites in India have been the source of much dispute, given
that they have been places of religious importance for both religions. Have
students read the article “Religious tension hangs heavy in sacred Hindu city”
(Appendix 6).
In small groups, have students discuss answers to the following questions:
o What are some of the major reasons for the violence and tension in these
parts of India?
o How must it feel to live in that kind of environment? In what ways
have you experienced similar tension, even if on a smaller scale?
o In what ways is this tension similar to other religious conflicts around
the globe?
o How is the situation different for Hindus and Muslims? What reasons to
both groups have for wanting control of the holy sites?
o Do you think religion is ever a justification for fighting? Explain.
o Think back to our discussion yesterday on identities. In what ways is
religion an important part of your identity?
o How can you effectively ease tension in religion in your community?
Outside of your community?
o Have you ever been in a situation where your differences have created
conflict? What happened? Specifically, have you ever experienced or
witnessed conflict (of any scale) over religion or ethnicity? (If students
have trouble with this question, you may want to remind them of the
violence and discrimination against Muslims after the 9/11 attacks and
gather their comparisons.) Ask students to think about derisive
comments and jokes they hear about various groups of ethnicity,
religion, gender, etc.
As a class, have students share some of the ideas they expressed in their smaller
discussions. Explain to students that while violence between Hindus and
Muslims in India reached an apex in 2002, tensions are still simmering, and fear
of another major outbreak of violence is very present. Pose these questions to
students:
o Why are disputes of a religious nature so difficult to resolve?
o What kinds of solutions have you seen work or not work with other
religious conflicts? What do you think can be done to reduce the
tension, and in many cases, violence in India between Hindus and
Muslims? What will both parties have to do?
o When have you seen violence, discrimination, or hate in your
community, what caused it? How was the conflict resolved? What kinds
of problems still persist based on the idea of ‘otherness’ (differences
regarding ethnicity, religion, gender, skin color, etc.)?
Appendix 1
Hinduism: The Basics
Hinduism is considered the world's oldest living religion. It originated in India
approximately 4,000 years ago. Most Hindus live in India, with approximately 83% of
Indians belonging to this faith. The Immigration Act of 1965 has increased migration
of Hindus to the United States. The USA census of the year 2000 is expected to report
1,000,000 people with Indian ancestry.
Hinduism is different from most religions. There is no prophet, no book, no dogma.
They use poetic phrases passed down thousands of years to express their philosophy of
life. Writings such as the Bhagwad Gita (BUHG un vvhd GEE tah) contain statements
such as, "Truth is one, the wise perceive it in many ways". Statements such as this
recognize the possible limitations of their viewpoint. They are receptive to the opinion
of others. They refuse to condemn society to a single interpretation of reality.
Gods & Goddesses
Hindus have numerous gods and goddesses; but they are all manifestations of one
supreme being, Brahmam or the Universal Spirit. Hindus believe that everything is
cyclic. The universe has been created, sustained, and destroyed many times. There are
three major expressions of Brahman who rule over these manifestations of the universe:
1. Brahman, who created the world
2. Vishnu, who sustains the universe for 432 million human years
3. Shiva, who destroys the universe. This begins the cycle again.
Brahman is not generally worshipped by the individual. Vishnu and Shiva are the two
main gods of Hinduism that are worshipped by the masses. Vishnu has a kindly nature
and is thought to try to insure the welfare of humanity. He descends from heaven to
earth in one of his avatars (physical forms) whenever a catastrophe faces the universe
or if humanity needs comfort and guidance. While Vishnu is very involved with
humanity, Shiva is aloof from people. He is sometimes pictured meditating alone. Shiva
has a third eye of higher consciousness or wisdom located in his forehead. He has great
power and is beyond the distinctions of good and evil. He can be loving. He saves man
by "drinking" (removing) man's sins, hence Shiva's throat is blue.
Water is used in all rituals; it is an element of purification. The faithful offer water to
the Gods, to the Wise Ones, and to the souls of the departed. To the water itself, is
offered milk, as a symbol of fertility and plenty. In India, the river is considered a
loving mother dispensing bounty, fertility, and prosperity. The Ganges (GAN jeez) River,
the greatest waterway in India is also considered the most sacred. It is called Mother
Ganges by millions of Hindus. Each year millions visit it, bathe in it, and take samples
home. Those that are ill hope to be cured by the water. If not cured, at least to die in
its comforting waters, since it is thought that they will go straight to Paradise.
Great Temples exist throughout India; they honor different gods. Hindus go to the
Temple to worship as individuals. They do not worship as a congregation nor is there
any day set aside for worship. The Temples are spread over acres and are like little
towns. In the outer areas one will find tanks for ritualistic bathing, shrines, halls, and
bazaars. Artists and sculptors practice their professions and sell their wares. Vendors
hawk flowers, sandalwood, and souvenirs. The inner part of the Temple is where the
image of the deity is kept. As one prays in this cool, darkened prayer hall; it is believed
that the soul unites with the three forms of Brahman.
Devout Hindus also start their mornings with personal prayer and religious rituals
(puja). The worship can not begin until he visits a stream to touch the purifying
waters. Before eating, puja is also performed.
Reincarnation & Castes
Hindus believe nothing that once existed is ever completely destroyed, it merely
undergoes a change in its form. Reincarnation is the rebirth of the soul after death into
the body of another. This belief in reincarnation has resulted in a caste system. The
castes divide the people into lifelong social positions. They are born into a caste. It is
felt that the way one has lived in a previous life dictates into which caste you are born.
If you have been a good person you are awarded by being born into a higher caste. The
person who has been evil is punished by having to live his life as part of a lower caste.
The original castes or orders were based on the different parts of the body of a god,
Purusa.
o Mouth - priests and teachers called Brahmins
o Arms - warriors and rulers, the Ksatriyas
o Thigh - farmers and traders, Vaisyas
o Feet - menial laborers, the Sudras
Today these four original divisions have been divided into thousands of different
castes. For each caste there are definite rules and regulations that dictate with whom
they could marry, with whom they could socialize, and what they could eat.
Those that did not belong to any caste were thought to be created from darkness that
Brahma discarded when he was creating the universe. These are known as outcasts or
untouchables. The government has tried to outlaw the caste system, especially
untouchables, but it has been difficult in the small villages.
o Brahmins are the privileged or highest caste. Originally they were not
permitted to engage in any type of work other than study and religious
teachings. Now they can become lawyers, doctors, businessmen,
government employees or university professors. Being a member of this
caste still retains an esteemed social position. Originally, those from
other castes were expected to support and sustain the Brahmins with
gifts of food or money. The gifts provided the donator great benefits or
merit. Brahmins are expected to be lacto-vegetarians.
o Ksatriyas as the warriors and rulers were originally obligated to protect
the community. They had to be willing to give their lives to protect the
Brahmins and the sacred animals. Since they were warriors they were
permitted to kill animals, other than the sacred cow, to eat.
o The Vaisyas as farmers and traders were supposed to make money to
improve the economic conditions of the country. They were encouraged
to give gifts to the Brahmins and money to build Temples.
o The Sudras serve the three higher classes with diligence and
humbleness. Some of the subdivisions created out of this class are the
weavers and the carpenters.
o The outcasts or untouchables are not allowed to enter the villages and
towns except to do the most menial labor. They are not allowed to own
land or to build houses. They live in wretched conditions.
Appendix 2
Ganesha – deity of intellect & wisdom Vishnu – deity of creation
Shiva – deity of destruction Krishna – origin of all
incarnations
Appendix 3
Hinduism & Food
Lacto-Vegetarians
Hindus believe that all living things contain a part of the divine spirit. Therefore, all
life is sacred. If you take the life of even the smallest creature it is as if you harm part
of Brahman. Most pious Hindus, especially Brahmins, are lacto-vegetarians. This means
that the only animal foods that they eat are dairy foods. The pious do not eat eggs
since they are the beginning of life. As vegetarianism is considered the most desired
method of eating, non-vegetarians eat vegetarian meals on auspicious or religious
occasions. Avoiding meat is thought to contribute to inner self-improvement and
physical well-being. Even some vegetables are considered taboo by Orthodox Hindus
who do not eat onion, garlic, turnips, or mushrooms.
Meats Eaten: Those that do eat meat, eat it in small amounts with starches such as rice
or bread. The main meat consumed by Hindu non-vegetarians is goat while some enjoy
lamb or buffalo. Chicken and pork are sometimes avoided since these two animals are
scavengers and they are considered unclean. Hindus who live in the area of Bengal
(Eastern India) and on the Western coastal area eat fish.
Sacred Cow
All Hindus avoid eating beef since they venerate the cow. The cows appear to know
that they are sacred. It is estimated that 40,000 cows wander the streets of New Delhi
being patted by each person they meet. They amble slowly crossing highways or relax in
the middle of the road if they feel so inclined. While all animals are considered sacred,
the cow has been singled out as particularly sacred because they:
o Have given years of faithful service in helping man till the soil
and pull the carts.
o Provide man with food, milk.
o Provide man with fuel, in form of cow dung, to heat his home
and cook his food.
o In Hindu mythology the cow was created by Brahman on the same
day as the Brahmins thus it is an animal venerated above all others.
o Symbol of motherhood.
Foods Effects
Hindus believe that there is a connection between foods, moods, fitness and longevity.
Foods are divided into three major categories depending upon how they are believed to
effect the body.
o Sattvic foods are thought to contribute to making a person serene,
enlightened, healthy, and long-lived. It is considered very
complimentary to say that at a person is sattvic. Sattvic foods include
rice, wheat, ghee, most legumes, some other vegetables, milk and milk
products (except cheeses made from rennet). Rennet comes from the
stomach of animals; to obtain it, the animal would have to be
slaughtered.
o Rajasic foods are believed to contribute to a person becoming
aggressive, greedy, passionate and desiring of power. Warriors were
encouraged to eat these foods. Rajasic foods are some meats, eggs, and
foods that are very bitter, sour, salty, rich and/or spicy.
o Tamasic foods when used for pleasure and in excess can contribute to
lust, malice, confusion, slothfulness, and dullness. These foods are
garlic, pickled, preserved, stale, or rotten foods and alcohol or drugs.
Indian Medicine
The classic system of Indian medicine called Ayurveda (the Code of Life and Longevity)
involves the interaction of "humors" in the body and foods. If they are in balance the
body will be healthy, out of balance the body will become ill.
o Kapha foods like white sugar, millet and buttermilk are thought to be
heavy, dense, and mucus-producing. They should be avoided when one
suffers from respiratory ailments.
o Vata or vayu are the "wind" or gas producing foods such as some
legumes. They are thought to be "unpredictable" and should be avoided
when the stomach is bloated.
o "Hot" or ushna foods include mungo bean, cowpea, ripe eggplant, and
papaya. These foods are thought to promote digestion.
o "Cool" or seeta foods consist of the "typical" foods eaten by a lactovegetarian;
many cereals, like rice, wheat, mung beans, kidney beans,
most fruits and vegetables, milk from most animals except goats, butter
and ghee. These foods are thought to impart strength and nourishment.
Obesity Disapproved
Even when one is eating proper foods, moderation is advocated since obesity is not
approved. The laws of food consumption dictate that solid food should fill half the
stomach, liquid one-fourth, and the remainder should be left empty for smooth
digestion.
Fasting is practiced by many Hindus on days particular to the god that they worship.
There is no "formula" for fasting as in other religions. It can be for one meal, part of
the day, or for a few days, or can just involve eating a sparse diet or avoiding a
particular food group. Fasting is thought to cleanse the body and uplift the spirit.
Sacred Kitchen
In the Hindu home the kitchen is considered sacred. Proper reference must be observed
when preparing and consuming food. Those who prepare, and those who eat, must
purify themselves first by ritual bathing of the entire body.
A Brahmin will not accept cooked food from a member of a lower caste, but will accept
uncooked food. The shadow of a lower caste person can render the food unfit to eat.
There are vast differences between North and South India, not only in culture,
language, and climate, but also in cuisine.
Appendix 4
India - History
Indian history can be traced back over some 5,000 years. The country’s rich natural
resources - spices, indigo, sugar, cotton, silk, sandalwood, and ivory - made it a target
for invasion and colonization by European powers from the fifteenth century onwards.
The history of the British in India begins in 1600,
with the setting up of the East India Company, a
trading company designed to exploit India’s rich
natural resources. The company gradually extended
its rule through India, and in 1858 the British
crown took over from the East India Company as
the ruler of India. Britain then ruled India as part
of the British Empire until the independence
movement, led by Mahatma Gandhi and others,
succeeded in gaining Indian independence in
1947.
Following independence India was divided up in a
process called partition, to create Pakistan as a
Muslim state. This was a difficult process; many millions of people had to travel
between the new states, and in the unrest, people were killed. Mahatma Gandhi
opposed partition; he was assassinated by a Hindu fundamentalist.
Newly independent, India worked to establish strong institutions of justice, media and
bureaucracy. It is now the largest democracy in the world and reviving the traditional
Panchayat (village council) system makes sure people can take part in democracy. Fast
economic reform has also made India the world’s tenth most industrialised country,
with a globally competitive computer market and its own space programme. But border
disputes continue to be an issue. In 1962, war broke out with China over the India-
China border and in 1971, war with Pakistan led to India recognising the new state of
Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan.
The dispute between India and Pakistan over Kashmir began at independence and has
rumbled on ever since with periodic outbreaks of cross-border skirmishing. The
potential dangers of conflict over Kashmir were underlined when both countries tested
nuclear weapons within weeks of each other in May 1998 and for several months in
2002 there seemed to be a real risk of war.
Photo: Rajendra Shaw/Oxfam
Appendix 5
Timeline of India’s History:
http:/ / w w w.kamat.com/kalranga/timeline/timeline.ht m
Resources for the India-Pakistan conflict over Kashmir:
Great resource on entire Kashmir conflict:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/south_asia/2002/kashmir_flashpoint/default.stm
Religion and Conflict: Hindus and Muslims in India:
http:/ / w w w.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/classroom/lp5.htm l
PBS overview of conflict:
http:/ / w w w.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/shows/india/index.htm l
Appendix 6
World>Asia: South & Central from the May 22, 2002 edition
Religious tension hangs heavy in sacred Hindu city
In the Indian city of Mathura, Hindus and Muslims hold on to a shaky peace at a holy
site.
By Diana Coulter | Special to The Christian Science Monitor
MATHURA, INDIA – Sharafat Khan's husky baritone, well-tuned for bartering in this
noisy Indian marketplace, lowers to a whisper when he discusses Gujarat, a violencetorn
region far from his hometown.
"Yes, we are watching the murder of our Muslim brothers there, and we are worrying.
Maybe we are next," says the burly iron fabricator, as he huddles close to his son. "I
was born in Mathura. I have friends here who are both Hindu and Muslim, but I know
that could change, if only someone decides to play more political games."
Gujarat and its communal violence may be hundreds of miles away, but many in
Mathura, such as Mr. Khan, are nervously watching the region's rising death count, now
close to one thousand.
Violence in the northern Indian town of Ayodhya escalated Feb. 27 after a Muslim mob
firebombed a train carrying Hindus who wanted a temple re-built on a mosque site
there. The incident sparked India's worst religious violence in a decade.
Residents of Mathura worry that a similar scenario awaits them, because their city, like
Ayodhya, is home to a highly significant religious site being fought over by Hindus and
Muslims.
Some 3,000 holy places are scattered across India, where hundreds of years ago Muslim
rulers are said to have destroyed sacred Hindu temples to build mosques. But Mathura,
Ayodhya, and Varanasi are three that were singled out for dispute in the early 1990s by
Hindu extremists because of their religious importance.
At Mathura, citizens are trying to stay calm. But around the corner from Khan's sidewalk
stall, sweets shop owner Laxmandass Maheshwori admits he is concerned.
"We are Hindu, but we live in a Muslim area and are very happy together. And now my
business is just six months old, and it is good...," says Mr. Maheshwori before adding in
a hushed tone: "If something happens here, then everything will be lost."
To most foreign tourists, Mathura would seem a nondescript, semi-industrial city to be
rushed past enroute to a viewing of the Taj Mahal in nearby Agra.
But at the city's heart, not far from the sacred bathing ghats that lead down to the
Yamuna River, lies the disputed land where Hindu pilgrims flock to find the birthplace
of Krishna – and, right next door, Muslims regularly turn to face Mecca at a red
sandstone mosque.
Mathura is recognized as one of Hinduism's seven sacred cities. Hindus believe that
Krishna was born here 3,500 years ago in a prison cell where his parents were held
captive by a tyrannical king.
A series of Muslim invaders – concluding with Emperor Aurangzeb in the 17th century –
razed the site, then built a mosque in its place. Now, a more recent Krishna temple also
stands cheek by jowl beside it, blaring Hindu bhajans (hymns) across the mosque's
cobblestones.
The tension at the site is palpable. At the Hindu temple, so-called "Black Cat" elite
commandos accompanied by city, regional, and intelligence bureau officers patrol the
grounds. To enter the complex, visitors must go through airport-style electronic arches,
then be patted down. A two-story-high, barbed-wire fence circles and divides the
temple and mosque.
At the mosque, security isn't as tight. Muslim families, goats, and bulls live on the
grounds.
A Hindu soldier on the mosque's perimeter was blunt about his view of the future.
"These Muslims don't like us here. We will wait some time, then they will be meat," says
the soldier, making a swift chopping motion with his hand.
In his concrete room at the mosque, the Muslim cleric, Imam Abdul Wazid says he
continues to preach "about living together like brothers and good neighbors, always
trying to get along."
But he still hears the worry in peoples' voices. "People talk about Gujarat and wonder if
this trouble will come here," the Imam says.
A high-ranking district official has said that the government is spending 400,000
rupees (more than $8,000) per day to protect both monuments.
"[Government officials] are worried that if trouble erupts here, it will just keep
spreading until we have a massive conflict across India and maybe with (mostly
Muslim) Pakistan," says Mohini Giri, chairperson of the Guild of Service, a women's
charitable group who has interviewed officials about the issue.
In addition, India's governing Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) has "a bloody nose because
of the Gujarat crisis, and they are very keen to stabilize," before upcoming state
elections and the 2004 general election, says Vinod Mehta, editor in chief of Outlook, a
respected Indian newsmagazine. "I don't think they want to be further marginalized."
Mr. Mehta says hopefully, the government is learning lessons from Gujarat.
Police in Gujarat now, for example, gather elders from both Hindu and Muslim
communities to sort out problems and talk peace so that no future flare-ups occur.
Mehta says the future of Mathura will depend on how the Gujarat conflict develops.
"The people who would be behind any Mathura agitation are the same people as the
perpetrators of the carnage in Gujarat, and right now, I don't think they have the
capacity to spread their activities so far out and have two or three things going at
once," says Mr. Mehta.
At his sweets stall, Maheshwori believes there is still room for hope in this city.
"Hindus and Muslims live
www.ShopaMagic.com
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Background of Lesson: Students will learn the basic tenets and features of Hinduism,
including its focus on multiple-god worship, the concept of reincarnation, and the
historical caste system. Students will then relate this to the formation of India and the
circumstances that have created religion-based conflict in recent years.
Objectives:
Students will be able to:
o Identify and understand the basic principles of Hinduism, including the system
of worship and the central concept of reincarnation.
o Understand various connections between Hinduism and general Indian culture,
including its history with a caste system.
o Incorporate basic knowledge of India’s history into their understanding of
religious conflict, especially the conflict over Kashmir, that persists in India
today, centuries later.
o Relate the Hindu-Muslim conflict to other instances of religious rifts across
other countries and periods.
Lesson Plan: Day One
The Basic Tenets of Hinduism
Note: This lesson can be extended to two days with the implementation of a small
research project and a more in-depth look at various facets of Hinduism. See numbers 4
and 5 for details.
1. (10 minutes) - Brainstorm what students know about India. What images,
names, places, ideas, etc. come to mind when you mention the word “India”?
Write their ideas on the board.
Explain that 86% of Indians are Hindu and that Hinduism has had a profound
effect on shaping the country and the way Indians live their lives.
Ask students the following: Which of the things on this list do you think are
related to Hinduism? (For example, if students mention anything about castes,
cows, the Ganges, etc., these can all be related to Hinduism.) Transfer their
ideas to a new list about Hinduism. Ask them what else they know about
Hinduism, if anything.
2. (15 minutes) - Provide students with background information on Hinduism by
giving them the handout “Basic Beliefs of Hinduism” (Appendix 1). Read the
two introductory paragraphs together and the section entitled “Gods and
Goddesses.” Then stop and ask the following questions:
o In what ways is Hinduism similar to other religions you know about? In
what ways is it different?
o What’s the significance of water in Hinduism? How is water regarded in
other religions, either in similar or different ways?
o How do Hindus worship? How does worship fit into their everyday lives?
3. (15 minutes) - Now read, individually or as a class, the second part of the
handout, “Reincarnation and Castes.” Following the reading, have another
discussion:
o How does the concept of reincarnation fit in with India’s caste system?
o What do you think of the caste system? What would it be like to be an
“untouchable”? A Brahmin?
o What do you think is happening to the caste system now in India in the
wake of modern influences and globalization?
o Why are some traditions so difficult to let go?
Now turn the discussion toward individual students’ experiences that relate to
the concept of a caste system. Ask the following questions:
o Have you ever felt like you were part of a distinct class?
o In what ways do you identify yourself? In other words, what labels do
you use to describe yourself? Encourage students to come up with
identities related to gender, ethnicity, skin color, religion, sexual
orientation, activities, class, and anything else they suggest.
o Ask students to think about the ways in which their own identity factors
are different from or similar to others’ labels. How and when do these
identities matter?
4. (10 minutes or longer if you extend it to Day Two) - Share pictorial
representations of the various gods (see Appendix 2). Gather students’
impressions and talk about the characteristics of each god based on his or her
appearance. If you have extra time and access to the Internet, have students,
either individually or in small groups, research different Hindu gods and their
roles in the faith as a whole. Have them look for pictures, descriptions, and
functions and share their findings with the class.
5. (15 minutes or more, best for Day Two) - Read the handout on food in India as
it relates to Hinduism (see Appendix 3).
o What’s the role of the cow in Hinduism?
o Are there any other religions that hold certain animals in high esteem?
o How are Hindus’ diets affected by their faith?
o What are some other food restrictions you know of that are based on
religion?
o Have you ever changed your diet because of your belief system?
Lesson Plan: Day Two
The Birth of India and Religious Conflict
1. (15 minutes) - Brief students on the history of India (see Appendix 4),
including the nature of Hindu-Muslim relations and the conflict over Kashmir.
Share with students the timeline of India’s history (see first link in Appendix 5);
to avoid overwhelming students with details, you might want to make the
timeline into a transparency and point out key dates.
Focus your subsequent discussion on the conflict over Kashmir:
o What’s the basis for the conflict in Kashmir? (Feel free to supplement
this talk with other articles. See Appendix 5 for links.)
o What other states can you think of that have been created on the basis
of religion? What kinds of problems persist in these countries, either
within the country or surrounding it (problems with their neighbors)?
o Within our own country, what kinds of religious division do you
experience or witness?
2. (35 minutes) - Explain to students that the conflict between Muslims and
Hindus in India and Pakistan is not limited to the fight over Kashmir. In recent
years, various holy sites in India have been the source of much dispute, given
that they have been places of religious importance for both religions. Have
students read the article “Religious tension hangs heavy in sacred Hindu city”
(Appendix 6).
In small groups, have students discuss answers to the following questions:
o What are some of the major reasons for the violence and tension in these
parts of India?
o How must it feel to live in that kind of environment? In what ways
have you experienced similar tension, even if on a smaller scale?
o In what ways is this tension similar to other religious conflicts around
the globe?
o How is the situation different for Hindus and Muslims? What reasons to
both groups have for wanting control of the holy sites?
o Do you think religion is ever a justification for fighting? Explain.
o Think back to our discussion yesterday on identities. In what ways is
religion an important part of your identity?
o How can you effectively ease tension in religion in your community?
Outside of your community?
o Have you ever been in a situation where your differences have created
conflict? What happened? Specifically, have you ever experienced or
witnessed conflict (of any scale) over religion or ethnicity? (If students
have trouble with this question, you may want to remind them of the
violence and discrimination against Muslims after the 9/11 attacks and
gather their comparisons.) Ask students to think about derisive
comments and jokes they hear about various groups of ethnicity,
religion, gender, etc.
As a class, have students share some of the ideas they expressed in their smaller
discussions. Explain to students that while violence between Hindus and
Muslims in India reached an apex in 2002, tensions are still simmering, and fear
of another major outbreak of violence is very present. Pose these questions to
students:
o Why are disputes of a religious nature so difficult to resolve?
o What kinds of solutions have you seen work or not work with other
religious conflicts? What do you think can be done to reduce the
tension, and in many cases, violence in India between Hindus and
Muslims? What will both parties have to do?
o When have you seen violence, discrimination, or hate in your
community, what caused it? How was the conflict resolved? What kinds
of problems still persist based on the idea of ‘otherness’ (differences
regarding ethnicity, religion, gender, skin color, etc.)?
Appendix 1
Hinduism: The Basics
Hinduism is considered the world's oldest living religion. It originated in India
approximately 4,000 years ago. Most Hindus live in India, with approximately 83% of
Indians belonging to this faith. The Immigration Act of 1965 has increased migration
of Hindus to the United States. The USA census of the year 2000 is expected to report
1,000,000 people with Indian ancestry.
Hinduism is different from most religions. There is no prophet, no book, no dogma.
They use poetic phrases passed down thousands of years to express their philosophy of
life. Writings such as the Bhagwad Gita (BUHG un vvhd GEE tah) contain statements
such as, "Truth is one, the wise perceive it in many ways". Statements such as this
recognize the possible limitations of their viewpoint. They are receptive to the opinion
of others. They refuse to condemn society to a single interpretation of reality.
Gods & Goddesses
Hindus have numerous gods and goddesses; but they are all manifestations of one
supreme being, Brahmam or the Universal Spirit. Hindus believe that everything is
cyclic. The universe has been created, sustained, and destroyed many times. There are
three major expressions of Brahman who rule over these manifestations of the universe:
1. Brahman, who created the world
2. Vishnu, who sustains the universe for 432 million human years
3. Shiva, who destroys the universe. This begins the cycle again.
Brahman is not generally worshipped by the individual. Vishnu and Shiva are the two
main gods of Hinduism that are worshipped by the masses. Vishnu has a kindly nature
and is thought to try to insure the welfare of humanity. He descends from heaven to
earth in one of his avatars (physical forms) whenever a catastrophe faces the universe
or if humanity needs comfort and guidance. While Vishnu is very involved with
humanity, Shiva is aloof from people. He is sometimes pictured meditating alone. Shiva
has a third eye of higher consciousness or wisdom located in his forehead. He has great
power and is beyond the distinctions of good and evil. He can be loving. He saves man
by "drinking" (removing) man's sins, hence Shiva's throat is blue.
Water is used in all rituals; it is an element of purification. The faithful offer water to
the Gods, to the Wise Ones, and to the souls of the departed. To the water itself, is
offered milk, as a symbol of fertility and plenty. In India, the river is considered a
loving mother dispensing bounty, fertility, and prosperity. The Ganges (GAN jeez) River,
the greatest waterway in India is also considered the most sacred. It is called Mother
Ganges by millions of Hindus. Each year millions visit it, bathe in it, and take samples
home. Those that are ill hope to be cured by the water. If not cured, at least to die in
its comforting waters, since it is thought that they will go straight to Paradise.
Great Temples exist throughout India; they honor different gods. Hindus go to the
Temple to worship as individuals. They do not worship as a congregation nor is there
any day set aside for worship. The Temples are spread over acres and are like little
towns. In the outer areas one will find tanks for ritualistic bathing, shrines, halls, and
bazaars. Artists and sculptors practice their professions and sell their wares. Vendors
hawk flowers, sandalwood, and souvenirs. The inner part of the Temple is where the
image of the deity is kept. As one prays in this cool, darkened prayer hall; it is believed
that the soul unites with the three forms of Brahman.
Devout Hindus also start their mornings with personal prayer and religious rituals
(puja). The worship can not begin until he visits a stream to touch the purifying
waters. Before eating, puja is also performed.
Reincarnation & Castes
Hindus believe nothing that once existed is ever completely destroyed, it merely
undergoes a change in its form. Reincarnation is the rebirth of the soul after death into
the body of another. This belief in reincarnation has resulted in a caste system. The
castes divide the people into lifelong social positions. They are born into a caste. It is
felt that the way one has lived in a previous life dictates into which caste you are born.
If you have been a good person you are awarded by being born into a higher caste. The
person who has been evil is punished by having to live his life as part of a lower caste.
The original castes or orders were based on the different parts of the body of a god,
Purusa.
o Mouth - priests and teachers called Brahmins
o Arms - warriors and rulers, the Ksatriyas
o Thigh - farmers and traders, Vaisyas
o Feet - menial laborers, the Sudras
Today these four original divisions have been divided into thousands of different
castes. For each caste there are definite rules and regulations that dictate with whom
they could marry, with whom they could socialize, and what they could eat.
Those that did not belong to any caste were thought to be created from darkness that
Brahma discarded when he was creating the universe. These are known as outcasts or
untouchables. The government has tried to outlaw the caste system, especially
untouchables, but it has been difficult in the small villages.
o Brahmins are the privileged or highest caste. Originally they were not
permitted to engage in any type of work other than study and religious
teachings. Now they can become lawyers, doctors, businessmen,
government employees or university professors. Being a member of this
caste still retains an esteemed social position. Originally, those from
other castes were expected to support and sustain the Brahmins with
gifts of food or money. The gifts provided the donator great benefits or
merit. Brahmins are expected to be lacto-vegetarians.
o Ksatriyas as the warriors and rulers were originally obligated to protect
the community. They had to be willing to give their lives to protect the
Brahmins and the sacred animals. Since they were warriors they were
permitted to kill animals, other than the sacred cow, to eat.
o The Vaisyas as farmers and traders were supposed to make money to
improve the economic conditions of the country. They were encouraged
to give gifts to the Brahmins and money to build Temples.
o The Sudras serve the three higher classes with diligence and
humbleness. Some of the subdivisions created out of this class are the
weavers and the carpenters.
o The outcasts or untouchables are not allowed to enter the villages and
towns except to do the most menial labor. They are not allowed to own
land or to build houses. They live in wretched conditions.
Appendix 2
Ganesha – deity of intellect & wisdom Vishnu – deity of creation
Shiva – deity of destruction Krishna – origin of all
incarnations
Appendix 3
Hinduism & Food
Lacto-Vegetarians
Hindus believe that all living things contain a part of the divine spirit. Therefore, all
life is sacred. If you take the life of even the smallest creature it is as if you harm part
of Brahman. Most pious Hindus, especially Brahmins, are lacto-vegetarians. This means
that the only animal foods that they eat are dairy foods. The pious do not eat eggs
since they are the beginning of life. As vegetarianism is considered the most desired
method of eating, non-vegetarians eat vegetarian meals on auspicious or religious
occasions. Avoiding meat is thought to contribute to inner self-improvement and
physical well-being. Even some vegetables are considered taboo by Orthodox Hindus
who do not eat onion, garlic, turnips, or mushrooms.
Meats Eaten: Those that do eat meat, eat it in small amounts with starches such as rice
or bread. The main meat consumed by Hindu non-vegetarians is goat while some enjoy
lamb or buffalo. Chicken and pork are sometimes avoided since these two animals are
scavengers and they are considered unclean. Hindus who live in the area of Bengal
(Eastern India) and on the Western coastal area eat fish.
Sacred Cow
All Hindus avoid eating beef since they venerate the cow. The cows appear to know
that they are sacred. It is estimated that 40,000 cows wander the streets of New Delhi
being patted by each person they meet. They amble slowly crossing highways or relax in
the middle of the road if they feel so inclined. While all animals are considered sacred,
the cow has been singled out as particularly sacred because they:
o Have given years of faithful service in helping man till the soil
and pull the carts.
o Provide man with food, milk.
o Provide man with fuel, in form of cow dung, to heat his home
and cook his food.
o In Hindu mythology the cow was created by Brahman on the same
day as the Brahmins thus it is an animal venerated above all others.
o Symbol of motherhood.
Foods Effects
Hindus believe that there is a connection between foods, moods, fitness and longevity.
Foods are divided into three major categories depending upon how they are believed to
effect the body.
o Sattvic foods are thought to contribute to making a person serene,
enlightened, healthy, and long-lived. It is considered very
complimentary to say that at a person is sattvic. Sattvic foods include
rice, wheat, ghee, most legumes, some other vegetables, milk and milk
products (except cheeses made from rennet). Rennet comes from the
stomach of animals; to obtain it, the animal would have to be
slaughtered.
o Rajasic foods are believed to contribute to a person becoming
aggressive, greedy, passionate and desiring of power. Warriors were
encouraged to eat these foods. Rajasic foods are some meats, eggs, and
foods that are very bitter, sour, salty, rich and/or spicy.
o Tamasic foods when used for pleasure and in excess can contribute to
lust, malice, confusion, slothfulness, and dullness. These foods are
garlic, pickled, preserved, stale, or rotten foods and alcohol or drugs.
Indian Medicine
The classic system of Indian medicine called Ayurveda (the Code of Life and Longevity)
involves the interaction of "humors" in the body and foods. If they are in balance the
body will be healthy, out of balance the body will become ill.
o Kapha foods like white sugar, millet and buttermilk are thought to be
heavy, dense, and mucus-producing. They should be avoided when one
suffers from respiratory ailments.
o Vata or vayu are the "wind" or gas producing foods such as some
legumes. They are thought to be "unpredictable" and should be avoided
when the stomach is bloated.
o "Hot" or ushna foods include mungo bean, cowpea, ripe eggplant, and
papaya. These foods are thought to promote digestion.
o "Cool" or seeta foods consist of the "typical" foods eaten by a lactovegetarian;
many cereals, like rice, wheat, mung beans, kidney beans,
most fruits and vegetables, milk from most animals except goats, butter
and ghee. These foods are thought to impart strength and nourishment.
Obesity Disapproved
Even when one is eating proper foods, moderation is advocated since obesity is not
approved. The laws of food consumption dictate that solid food should fill half the
stomach, liquid one-fourth, and the remainder should be left empty for smooth
digestion.
Fasting is practiced by many Hindus on days particular to the god that they worship.
There is no "formula" for fasting as in other religions. It can be for one meal, part of
the day, or for a few days, or can just involve eating a sparse diet or avoiding a
particular food group. Fasting is thought to cleanse the body and uplift the spirit.
Sacred Kitchen
In the Hindu home the kitchen is considered sacred. Proper reference must be observed
when preparing and consuming food. Those who prepare, and those who eat, must
purify themselves first by ritual bathing of the entire body.
A Brahmin will not accept cooked food from a member of a lower caste, but will accept
uncooked food. The shadow of a lower caste person can render the food unfit to eat.
There are vast differences between North and South India, not only in culture,
language, and climate, but also in cuisine.
Appendix 4
India - History
Indian history can be traced back over some 5,000 years. The country’s rich natural
resources - spices, indigo, sugar, cotton, silk, sandalwood, and ivory - made it a target
for invasion and colonization by European powers from the fifteenth century onwards.
The history of the British in India begins in 1600,
with the setting up of the East India Company, a
trading company designed to exploit India’s rich
natural resources. The company gradually extended
its rule through India, and in 1858 the British
crown took over from the East India Company as
the ruler of India. Britain then ruled India as part
of the British Empire until the independence
movement, led by Mahatma Gandhi and others,
succeeded in gaining Indian independence in
1947.
Following independence India was divided up in a
process called partition, to create Pakistan as a
Muslim state. This was a difficult process; many millions of people had to travel
between the new states, and in the unrest, people were killed. Mahatma Gandhi
opposed partition; he was assassinated by a Hindu fundamentalist.
Newly independent, India worked to establish strong institutions of justice, media and
bureaucracy. It is now the largest democracy in the world and reviving the traditional
Panchayat (village council) system makes sure people can take part in democracy. Fast
economic reform has also made India the world’s tenth most industrialised country,
with a globally competitive computer market and its own space programme. But border
disputes continue to be an issue. In 1962, war broke out with China over the India-
China border and in 1971, war with Pakistan led to India recognising the new state of
Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan.
The dispute between India and Pakistan over Kashmir began at independence and has
rumbled on ever since with periodic outbreaks of cross-border skirmishing. The
potential dangers of conflict over Kashmir were underlined when both countries tested
nuclear weapons within weeks of each other in May 1998 and for several months in
2002 there seemed to be a real risk of war.
Photo: Rajendra Shaw/Oxfam
Appendix 5
Timeline of India’s History:
http:/ / w w w.kamat.com/kalranga/timeline/timeline.ht m
Resources for the India-Pakistan conflict over Kashmir:
Great resource on entire Kashmir conflict:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/south_asia/2002/kashmir_flashpoint/default.stm
Religion and Conflict: Hindus and Muslims in India:
http:/ / w w w.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/classroom/lp5.htm l
PBS overview of conflict:
http:/ / w w w.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/shows/india/index.htm l
Appendix 6
World>Asia: South & Central from the May 22, 2002 edition
Religious tension hangs heavy in sacred Hindu city
In the Indian city of Mathura, Hindus and Muslims hold on to a shaky peace at a holy
site.
By Diana Coulter | Special to The Christian Science Monitor
MATHURA, INDIA – Sharafat Khan's husky baritone, well-tuned for bartering in this
noisy Indian marketplace, lowers to a whisper when he discusses Gujarat, a violencetorn
region far from his hometown.
"Yes, we are watching the murder of our Muslim brothers there, and we are worrying.
Maybe we are next," says the burly iron fabricator, as he huddles close to his son. "I
was born in Mathura. I have friends here who are both Hindu and Muslim, but I know
that could change, if only someone decides to play more political games."
Gujarat and its communal violence may be hundreds of miles away, but many in
Mathura, such as Mr. Khan, are nervously watching the region's rising death count, now
close to one thousand.
Violence in the northern Indian town of Ayodhya escalated Feb. 27 after a Muslim mob
firebombed a train carrying Hindus who wanted a temple re-built on a mosque site
there. The incident sparked India's worst religious violence in a decade.
Residents of Mathura worry that a similar scenario awaits them, because their city, like
Ayodhya, is home to a highly significant religious site being fought over by Hindus and
Muslims.
Some 3,000 holy places are scattered across India, where hundreds of years ago Muslim
rulers are said to have destroyed sacred Hindu temples to build mosques. But Mathura,
Ayodhya, and Varanasi are three that were singled out for dispute in the early 1990s by
Hindu extremists because of their religious importance.
At Mathura, citizens are trying to stay calm. But around the corner from Khan's sidewalk
stall, sweets shop owner Laxmandass Maheshwori admits he is concerned.
"We are Hindu, but we live in a Muslim area and are very happy together. And now my
business is just six months old, and it is good...," says Mr. Maheshwori before adding in
a hushed tone: "If something happens here, then everything will be lost."
To most foreign tourists, Mathura would seem a nondescript, semi-industrial city to be
rushed past enroute to a viewing of the Taj Mahal in nearby Agra.
But at the city's heart, not far from the sacred bathing ghats that lead down to the
Yamuna River, lies the disputed land where Hindu pilgrims flock to find the birthplace
of Krishna – and, right next door, Muslims regularly turn to face Mecca at a red
sandstone mosque.
Mathura is recognized as one of Hinduism's seven sacred cities. Hindus believe that
Krishna was born here 3,500 years ago in a prison cell where his parents were held
captive by a tyrannical king.
A series of Muslim invaders – concluding with Emperor Aurangzeb in the 17th century –
razed the site, then built a mosque in its place. Now, a more recent Krishna temple also
stands cheek by jowl beside it, blaring Hindu bhajans (hymns) across the mosque's
cobblestones.
The tension at the site is palpable. At the Hindu temple, so-called "Black Cat" elite
commandos accompanied by city, regional, and intelligence bureau officers patrol the
grounds. To enter the complex, visitors must go through airport-style electronic arches,
then be patted down. A two-story-high, barbed-wire fence circles and divides the
temple and mosque.
At the mosque, security isn't as tight. Muslim families, goats, and bulls live on the
grounds.
A Hindu soldier on the mosque's perimeter was blunt about his view of the future.
"These Muslims don't like us here. We will wait some time, then they will be meat," says
the soldier, making a swift chopping motion with his hand.
In his concrete room at the mosque, the Muslim cleric, Imam Abdul Wazid says he
continues to preach "about living together like brothers and good neighbors, always
trying to get along."
But he still hears the worry in peoples' voices. "People talk about Gujarat and wonder if
this trouble will come here," the Imam says.
A high-ranking district official has said that the government is spending 400,000
rupees (more than $8,000) per day to protect both monuments.
"[Government officials] are worried that if trouble erupts here, it will just keep
spreading until we have a massive conflict across India and maybe with (mostly
Muslim) Pakistan," says Mohini Giri, chairperson of the Guild of Service, a women's
charitable group who has interviewed officials about the issue.
In addition, India's governing Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) has "a bloody nose because
of the Gujarat crisis, and they are very keen to stabilize," before upcoming state
elections and the 2004 general election, says Vinod Mehta, editor in chief of Outlook, a
respected Indian newsmagazine. "I don't think they want to be further marginalized."
Mr. Mehta says hopefully, the government is learning lessons from Gujarat.
Police in Gujarat now, for example, gather elders from both Hindu and Muslim
communities to sort out problems and talk peace so that no future flare-ups occur.
Mehta says the future of Mathura will depend on how the Gujarat conflict develops.
"The people who would be behind any Mathura agitation are the same people as the
perpetrators of the carnage in Gujarat, and right now, I don't think they have the
capacity to spread their activities so far out and have two or three things going at
once," says Mr. Mehta.
At his sweets stall, Maheshwori believes there is still room for hope in this city.
"Hindus and Muslims live
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Friday, 23 September 2011
Hindu Wedding
According to the holy texts there are eight different types of Hindu marriages. According to many of these eight types of marriages prevailed in ancient India. Among these eight types all dint have religious procedure. The last four are not religiously defined and most of the times were condemned.
Brahma Marriage:
According to the Brahma marriage if the boy completes his Brahmacharya (student hood), he is eligible to be married. This marriage is done when the father of the boy approaches the girl's parents and asks for her hand. And then the Brahma marriage is arranged. In this there is no system of dowry. One of the most important ritual of this marriage is kanyadaan (where the father gifts his daughter to the groom.) Among the eight types the highest type of marriage is the dharmasastras.
Daiva Marriage:
In the case of Daiva marriage the girl is married to a priest. In this kind of a marriage the girl's family look for a suitable man for their daughter and if nobody turns up they go looking for a groom in such places where a sacrifice is being conducted. According to the religious texts Daiva marriage is inferior to Brahma marriage. It is considered degrading for the woman to look for groom by herself or by her family.
Arsha Marriage:
The third type of marriage is called Arsha marriage that is marriage with the sages. In Arsha the bride is given in exchange for two cows, which is received, from the groom. Marriages of this type are said to have happened when the parents of the bride couldn't afford the expense of their daughter's marriage at the right time. Without choice the girl is married to an old sage. This is not considered as a noble marriage at it involves monetary or business transaction.
Prajapatya Marriage:
This kind of marriage is almost similar to the Brahma marriage. There are only two major differences, one is that there is no monetary transaction and Kanyadaan is not a part of Prajapatya marriage. In this marriage the bride's father goes in search for a groom for his daughter.
Gandharva Marriage:
Next is Gandharva marriage, is like the modern day love marriage. Here the bride and the bridegroom marry secretly without the knowledge of their parents. It is not believed to be a right kind of marriage as it is against the will of the parents so it is inferior kind of marriage.
Asura Marriage:
In the Asura kind of marriage the groom is not considered suitable for the bride. He is in no way a match for the girl. The bridegroom gives as much wealth as he can afford to the bride's parents. So this system of marriage is more like buisness.
Rakshasa Marriage:
The Rakshasa marriage is done, when the groom fights battles with the bride's family, defeats them and then carries her away and then persuades her to marry him. This is not at all considered as the right kind of marriage as it includes force.
Paishacha Marriage:
Paishacha marriage is the last kind of marriage. It is considered as the most inferior type of marriage. In this the girl is married against her wishes. This kind of marriage is prohibited.
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Brahma Marriage:
According to the Brahma marriage if the boy completes his Brahmacharya (student hood), he is eligible to be married. This marriage is done when the father of the boy approaches the girl's parents and asks for her hand. And then the Brahma marriage is arranged. In this there is no system of dowry. One of the most important ritual of this marriage is kanyadaan (where the father gifts his daughter to the groom.) Among the eight types the highest type of marriage is the dharmasastras.
Daiva Marriage:
In the case of Daiva marriage the girl is married to a priest. In this kind of a marriage the girl's family look for a suitable man for their daughter and if nobody turns up they go looking for a groom in such places where a sacrifice is being conducted. According to the religious texts Daiva marriage is inferior to Brahma marriage. It is considered degrading for the woman to look for groom by herself or by her family.
Arsha Marriage:
The third type of marriage is called Arsha marriage that is marriage with the sages. In Arsha the bride is given in exchange for two cows, which is received, from the groom. Marriages of this type are said to have happened when the parents of the bride couldn't afford the expense of their daughter's marriage at the right time. Without choice the girl is married to an old sage. This is not considered as a noble marriage at it involves monetary or business transaction.
Prajapatya Marriage:
This kind of marriage is almost similar to the Brahma marriage. There are only two major differences, one is that there is no monetary transaction and Kanyadaan is not a part of Prajapatya marriage. In this marriage the bride's father goes in search for a groom for his daughter.
Gandharva Marriage:
Next is Gandharva marriage, is like the modern day love marriage. Here the bride and the bridegroom marry secretly without the knowledge of their parents. It is not believed to be a right kind of marriage as it is against the will of the parents so it is inferior kind of marriage.
Asura Marriage:
In the Asura kind of marriage the groom is not considered suitable for the bride. He is in no way a match for the girl. The bridegroom gives as much wealth as he can afford to the bride's parents. So this system of marriage is more like buisness.
Rakshasa Marriage:
The Rakshasa marriage is done, when the groom fights battles with the bride's family, defeats them and then carries her away and then persuades her to marry him. This is not at all considered as the right kind of marriage as it includes force.
Paishacha Marriage:
Paishacha marriage is the last kind of marriage. It is considered as the most inferior type of marriage. In this the girl is married against her wishes. This kind of marriage is prohibited.
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Thursday, 22 September 2011
Hindu Symbol OM
‘OM’-The symbol is comprised of three syllables put into one. In Sanskrit the vowel "o" is constitutionally a diphthong compound of a + u; hence OM is representatively written as AUM. The symbol of AUM is formed by three curves (curves 1, 2, and 3), one semicircle (curve 4), and a dot.
Large Lower Curve:
The large lower curve forms the waking state (jagrat), in this state the consciousness of a human is turned towards the gate of sense. The larger size of the curve signifies state of human consciousness.
The Upper Curve:
The upper curve represents the state of deep slumber (sushupti) in other words, the unconscious state. This is a state where the human has no desire of anything nor does he have a dream.
The Middle Curve:
The middle curve implies the dream state (swapna). In this state the consciousness of a person is turned inwards, and the person who dreams holds an exciting view of the world.
The above-mentioned signs are the three states of a person's consciousness, and thus these three curves represent the whole physical phenomenon.
Symbolism behind the Dot:
The dot in the Aum signifies the fourth state of consciousness, which in Sanskrit is known as ‘turiya.’ This state signifies the coming to rest of all relative existence. This quiet and peaceful state is the ultimate goal of all Hindus.
Symbolism behind the Semi Circle:
Finally, the semi circle in the OM symbolizes "Maya" (illusion). This illusion or maya prevents us from the achievement of bliss. This effect is used to prevent the seeker from reaching his ultimate goal, the realization of the One, and all-pervading, absolute principle.
Symbolism behind the Sound of OM:
As regards the sound and form, AUM is symbolic of Brahma and the whole universe.
■A symbolizes Creation
■U symbolizes Preservation
■M symbolizes Destruction
The three sounds also symbolize the three Vedas (Rig-Veda, Sam Veda, and Yajur Veda).
This is in other words represents the Trinity in Hindu Dharma namely Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva.
Other Symbolism behind OM:
■The three letters in AUM also indicate three planes of existence, called heaven, earth and netherworld.
■AUM can represent all the words produced by the human vocal organ. This can be said because; A is produced by the throat and U & M by the lips.
■According to the Vedas, AUM is associated with the sound of the Sun and also the sound of Light.
■It symbolizes the sound of the infinite.
But overall the nature of OM is threefold. It is a sacred sound. It forms the essence of all mantras. It is the ultimate reality (Brahma). It is also said to be the central essence of the Vedas.
While meditating, if we chant OM, we create within ourselves a vibration that connects us with the cosmic vibration and we start thinking universally. The silence between each chant becomes felt physically. The Mind moves from the opposites of sound and silence until the sound ceases. In this silence, there is no thought. This is the state of trance.
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Large Lower Curve:
The large lower curve forms the waking state (jagrat), in this state the consciousness of a human is turned towards the gate of sense. The larger size of the curve signifies state of human consciousness.
The Upper Curve:
The upper curve represents the state of deep slumber (sushupti) in other words, the unconscious state. This is a state where the human has no desire of anything nor does he have a dream.
The Middle Curve:
The middle curve implies the dream state (swapna). In this state the consciousness of a person is turned inwards, and the person who dreams holds an exciting view of the world.
The above-mentioned signs are the three states of a person's consciousness, and thus these three curves represent the whole physical phenomenon.
Symbolism behind the Dot:
The dot in the Aum signifies the fourth state of consciousness, which in Sanskrit is known as ‘turiya.’ This state signifies the coming to rest of all relative existence. This quiet and peaceful state is the ultimate goal of all Hindus.
Symbolism behind the Semi Circle:
Finally, the semi circle in the OM symbolizes "Maya" (illusion). This illusion or maya prevents us from the achievement of bliss. This effect is used to prevent the seeker from reaching his ultimate goal, the realization of the One, and all-pervading, absolute principle.
Symbolism behind the Sound of OM:
As regards the sound and form, AUM is symbolic of Brahma and the whole universe.
■A symbolizes Creation
■U symbolizes Preservation
■M symbolizes Destruction
The three sounds also symbolize the three Vedas (Rig-Veda, Sam Veda, and Yajur Veda).
This is in other words represents the Trinity in Hindu Dharma namely Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva.
Other Symbolism behind OM:
■The three letters in AUM also indicate three planes of existence, called heaven, earth and netherworld.
■AUM can represent all the words produced by the human vocal organ. This can be said because; A is produced by the throat and U & M by the lips.
■According to the Vedas, AUM is associated with the sound of the Sun and also the sound of Light.
■It symbolizes the sound of the infinite.
But overall the nature of OM is threefold. It is a sacred sound. It forms the essence of all mantras. It is the ultimate reality (Brahma). It is also said to be the central essence of the Vedas.
While meditating, if we chant OM, we create within ourselves a vibration that connects us with the cosmic vibration and we start thinking universally. The silence between each chant becomes felt physically. The Mind moves from the opposites of sound and silence until the sound ceases. In this silence, there is no thought. This is the state of trance.
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Wednesday, 21 September 2011
Four Stages of Life
Hinduism not only tells you the aims of life but it also shows the practical way
to how to achieve those aims. To do this, Hinduism divides a person’s life in
four stages or Asramas:
1. Brahmacharya-Asrama.
2. Grihastha-Asrama.
3. Vanaprastha-Asrama.
4. Sannyasa-Asrama.
In the old times, people used to live for about 100 years or more. Therefore, a
person’s life span is assumed to be about hundred years and each stage is
expected to last for about 20 to 25 years. The second asrama is expected to
last longer compared to others. Remember, this is a guideline and not a
compulsion to anybody, even for the Brahmins (priests) but it was an ideal way
to live a well-planned life.
1. Brahmacharya-Asrama:
Brahmacharya means celibacy. This is the student phase of life. In this
Asrama, one is supposed to acquire knowledge from his teacher and to remain
celibate. The stage generally starts from 8 years of age. The student is
introduced to his Guru through a ceremony called “Upanayana.”
Notably, this stage is only for boys and not for girls and the student needs to
stay with his teacher until he finishes his studies. This stage ends at the age
20 to 25 or less depending upon the situation.
2. Grihastha-Asrama:
Grihasthashrama means the stage of life when the person is married and has to
fulfill all his duties towards his wife, children, father, and mother. This
stage starts when Brahmacharya Asrama ends. So, this is the second stage of
life. During this stage, he has to earn his livelihood by using his skills he
learnt from his teacher during Brahmacharya Asrama. This is the most important
stage of life and tends to last longer than other stages. During this stage, he
is authorized to enjoy “Kama” as well as he has to work hard to secure “Artha.”
This stage is expected to end at 50 years of age.
3. Vanaprastha-Asrama.
Vanaprastha means “going to the forest.” This is the third stage of life. This
is the stage when the person is to retire, give up sexual life, give up all the
possessions to children, and enter the forest. He could leave his wife to the
care of his sons or allow her to accompany him. He will live as a hermit,
surviving on alms.
Notably, a person cannot enter Vanaprasthashrama unless and until his daughters
are married and his sons are able to earn their own livelihood. This ensures
that the person completes all his duties towards his families.
4. Sannyasa-Asrama:
Sannyasa means complete renunciation. This is the last stage of life and may
start at 75 years of age but there is no such restriction of age. He is to
dedicate himself entirely to spirituality. He is to live on fruits and roots
found in the jungle. He is not allowed to eat cooked food or beg for alms. He
needs to avoid unnecessary contacts with anybody. He does not need to care
about his body. He is to practise austerities and thus be prepared for
salvation. If he follow this stage properly, he would be released from the
cycle of birth and rebirth and would attain Moksha (salvation).
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to how to achieve those aims. To do this, Hinduism divides a person’s life in
four stages or Asramas:
1. Brahmacharya-Asrama.
2. Grihastha-Asrama.
3. Vanaprastha-Asrama.
4. Sannyasa-Asrama.
In the old times, people used to live for about 100 years or more. Therefore, a
person’s life span is assumed to be about hundred years and each stage is
expected to last for about 20 to 25 years. The second asrama is expected to
last longer compared to others. Remember, this is a guideline and not a
compulsion to anybody, even for the Brahmins (priests) but it was an ideal way
to live a well-planned life.
1. Brahmacharya-Asrama:
Brahmacharya means celibacy. This is the student phase of life. In this
Asrama, one is supposed to acquire knowledge from his teacher and to remain
celibate. The stage generally starts from 8 years of age. The student is
introduced to his Guru through a ceremony called “Upanayana.”
Notably, this stage is only for boys and not for girls and the student needs to
stay with his teacher until he finishes his studies. This stage ends at the age
20 to 25 or less depending upon the situation.
2. Grihastha-Asrama:
Grihasthashrama means the stage of life when the person is married and has to
fulfill all his duties towards his wife, children, father, and mother. This
stage starts when Brahmacharya Asrama ends. So, this is the second stage of
life. During this stage, he has to earn his livelihood by using his skills he
learnt from his teacher during Brahmacharya Asrama. This is the most important
stage of life and tends to last longer than other stages. During this stage, he
is authorized to enjoy “Kama” as well as he has to work hard to secure “Artha.”
This stage is expected to end at 50 years of age.
3. Vanaprastha-Asrama.
Vanaprastha means “going to the forest.” This is the third stage of life. This
is the stage when the person is to retire, give up sexual life, give up all the
possessions to children, and enter the forest. He could leave his wife to the
care of his sons or allow her to accompany him. He will live as a hermit,
surviving on alms.
Notably, a person cannot enter Vanaprasthashrama unless and until his daughters
are married and his sons are able to earn their own livelihood. This ensures
that the person completes all his duties towards his families.
4. Sannyasa-Asrama:
Sannyasa means complete renunciation. This is the last stage of life and may
start at 75 years of age but there is no such restriction of age. He is to
dedicate himself entirely to spirituality. He is to live on fruits and roots
found in the jungle. He is not allowed to eat cooked food or beg for alms. He
needs to avoid unnecessary contacts with anybody. He does not need to care
about his body. He is to practise austerities and thus be prepared for
salvation. If he follow this stage properly, he would be released from the
cycle of birth and rebirth and would attain Moksha (salvation).
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Tuesday, 20 September 2011
Hindu Culture
Hindu Clothes
Indian clothing is famous because it is colorful and also graceful. Outfits for women are designed to be graceful. While men's clothes are for the warm climate and comfort. Certain trends in clothing prevail even to date throughout the country.
Women's clothing:
The traditional Indian clothing for women is the Sari, which can be worn in many different ways. A choli is worn over a sari, which is a blouse that ends just below the bust. The Salwar Kameej is one of the most popular costumes. The Salwar Kameez too has had many designs. One of the other traditional dresses is the Lehangas.
The sari:
The Sari is still so popular even after centuries because it has a sense of luxury and sexuality to it. Even though it is a single length of material, the sari is a very versatile garment. It is a rectangular piece of cloth, which is sometimes five and usually six yards in length. The style, color and texture of this cloth vary. But the most traditional ones are the handloom or hand woven saris. Now a -days it is made from cotton, silk or one of the several man-made materials.
The choli:
It is a tightly fitted blouse that ends just below the bust and is worn under a sari. It can be long sleeved or even short sleeved. The choli came developed as a form of clothing in 10th century AD. The cholis first used were only front covering; the back was usually bare. Blouses of this kind are still common. Today, there are a number of styles of cholis which are inspired by other cultures as well.
The salwar kameej:
Another commonly used attire of women in India is the salwar-kameez. This dress was used in the northern part of India as a comfortable and especially in Kashmir and Punjab. Now it is very popular in all regions of India. Salwars are loose trousers like pants drawn tightly to the waist and the ankles. Over the salwar, they wear long and loose clothing known as a kameez. Occasionally women wear churidar instead of a salwar. A churidar is like the salwar but is tight fitting at the hips, thighs and ankles.
The lehanga:
Apart from the sari's, women in some regions wear a kind of pleated skirt known as the ghagra or lehanga. This skirt is tied around the waist and thus leaves the back and midriff bare. This dress also has a choli. The choli is covered by a length of cloth known as "odhni" or "dupatta".
Men's traditional clothing:
The traditional attire of men includes: Sherwani, Lungi, Dhoti and Kurta Pajama.
The sherwani:
It is a coat like garment, worn by men, which is tight and close to the body. It is usually knee-length or longer and opens in front with the help of buttons. Below this men wear a garment, which is baggy and wide at the top but tight around the legs and ankles. It is considered as a very elegant dress for men and mostly worn only during ceremonies.
The lungi:
The lungi had originated in the south and is still common there. Today men and women wear it in the same fashion. It is simply a long length of material worn around the thighs like a sarong.
The dhoti:
A dhoti is a longer version of a lungi. It has an additional length of material to be pulled up between the legs.
The kurta-pyjama:
The Kurta is a knee length shirt, which is worn, mostly in white or pastel colors. Elderly people usually wore it, because they looked decent in it. Today you find Kurtas made out of the most varied colors and fabrics. Pyjama-are nothing but loose trousers which you tie around the waist with a string. It is traditionally white in color.
Hindu Music
Hindu music is also called as sangeet. Music is believed to have mythological roots and is associated with the heavenly singers, called the Gandharvas. The first person to practice this art form was Narada. The oldest texts associated with music are the Sama Veda, which consists of melodies, which are recited, in the form of hymns during ritual sacrifice. Music is considered as a means of moral or spiritual connection rather than mere entertainment. There are three key elements in the music discipline
The guru - coming in parampara where the disciple becomes the successor
Vinaya - humility, this is one of the key ingredients expected from a disciple
Sadhana -practice of what is being taught regularly
Hindu music is based on two main things called
Raga, the melodic scale
Tala, the rhythm
Both Raga and Tala chosen carefully invokes the right mood (rasa). In discussing the aesthetics of dance and music, Bharata Muni coined the concept of nava-rasa, (nine principle "moods" or "tastes.)" During the Bhakhi movement, emphasis was on spiritual emotion, so worship was integrated into music. It was considered not only adoration but a means towards a higher consciousness. Tansen is also another important person remembered because he was believed to perform miracles through his singing.
Common instruments used for Hindu music includes drums, such as the tables mridangas, the manjira and the harmonium. Classical instruments include, tabla, include the flute, vina, sitar, sarangi, santoor, and shenai
The music of India is considered monodic. Its tone is divided into 22 segments called srutis. The basic scales in Hindu music are sa-grama. Other scales are derived from the basic srutis by the sharping or flatting of some of the tones. Melody is based on the system of ragas, and is used as the basis for improvisation.There are many ragas, and there are sets of rules for improvisation in that raga.
Each raga is attributed with certain ethical and emotional properties, and is also associated with a certain season and a certain time of day. Ragas are also associated with magical powers. For example if a raga associated with darkness is sung in the middle of the day then it can even bring darkness upon the earth. In the performance of the ragas, lots of importance is attached to the gamakas, (ornaments) of music. Music is based on very complex rhythmic patterns, called talas, which are combined in the most innovative ways.
The oldest instrument is the Drum and there are several types in it. The most important instrument is the Veena. A similar instrument is the sitar, the most commonly used instrument in India. In addition, various types of bagpipe, lute, fiddle, oboe, trumpet, flute, cymbal, and gong have been known in India. Many of the instruments are of Islamic origin
Hindu Art
Hinduism is a conglomeration of a wide variety of beliefs and Infact, it is unique in its tolerance of diversity. Roots of this religion have been since 4000 years in India, and as it developed it absorbed many beliefs and practices of various kinds of people. Assimilation happened differently for different parts of India.
The Hindu religion is a great repository of heterogeneity of beliefs. Worship of different kinds of deities is a very personal choice, and that aspect of Hindu practice is reflected in the number of different Hindu temples and their sculptural beliefs.
A man who has no knowledge of music, literature, or art is believed to be no better than a beast. Hindu's always believed art to be a key to salvation or ultimate release that is sought by all good Hindus. There is a kind of a holistic feel about Indian art; it is a unity of many forms and artistic experiences.
Different forms of hindu art:
Art rules every part of Indian life, and is found in every reference of ancient Indian Civilization. Indian art is considered a disciplined style of worship and self-restraint. Hindu art can also be thought of as India's oldest indigenous science.
Sometimes lord Shiva, is visually represented as "King of Dance" or Nataraja. This form of Shiva is considered as the most remarkable symbol of divine powers, which was ever created by Indian artistic genius.
Indian artists have frozen the beauty of human bodies in various shapes with the help of stone and bronze for around 5,000 years. It is difficult to name only a single person or persons among the geniuses who brought gods to life in places like the Ellora, Ajanta, Elephanta and Karli caves.
The transition from cave excavation and carvings on the Hindu temples are depicted dramatically and powerfully at Ellora. Ellora is an entire mountain which has been literally shaped out over many centuries by devoted artists. These artists created and "extracted" Lord Shiva's Mount Kailas temple within that enormous rock dome.
Ellora's Kailas cave temple is still one of the few beautiful monuments of art and Hindu devotion. The carvings on some of the walls and pillars is magnificent. No other work on stone or in any other material are as fine. But still what remains a mystery is what tools have been used to make the very hard and tough stone as it is to be seen on the present day.
Indian art is related to Hindu religion and philosophy. It is hard to appreciate the Indian art unless one has insight into the ideals that govern the Indian minds. In the Indian art there is mostly a religious element, a looking beyond.
The beautiful carvings of the Hindu temples, the beautiful wall paintings of Ajanta, or the intriguing art of cave sites and the sophisticated temple building tradition, the Indian Hindu culture offers a good visual feast
www.ShopaMagic.com
www.onssolutions.com
Indian clothing is famous because it is colorful and also graceful. Outfits for women are designed to be graceful. While men's clothes are for the warm climate and comfort. Certain trends in clothing prevail even to date throughout the country.
Women's clothing:
The traditional Indian clothing for women is the Sari, which can be worn in many different ways. A choli is worn over a sari, which is a blouse that ends just below the bust. The Salwar Kameej is one of the most popular costumes. The Salwar Kameez too has had many designs. One of the other traditional dresses is the Lehangas.
The sari:
The Sari is still so popular even after centuries because it has a sense of luxury and sexuality to it. Even though it is a single length of material, the sari is a very versatile garment. It is a rectangular piece of cloth, which is sometimes five and usually six yards in length. The style, color and texture of this cloth vary. But the most traditional ones are the handloom or hand woven saris. Now a -days it is made from cotton, silk or one of the several man-made materials.
The choli:
It is a tightly fitted blouse that ends just below the bust and is worn under a sari. It can be long sleeved or even short sleeved. The choli came developed as a form of clothing in 10th century AD. The cholis first used were only front covering; the back was usually bare. Blouses of this kind are still common. Today, there are a number of styles of cholis which are inspired by other cultures as well.
The salwar kameej:
Another commonly used attire of women in India is the salwar-kameez. This dress was used in the northern part of India as a comfortable and especially in Kashmir and Punjab. Now it is very popular in all regions of India. Salwars are loose trousers like pants drawn tightly to the waist and the ankles. Over the salwar, they wear long and loose clothing known as a kameez. Occasionally women wear churidar instead of a salwar. A churidar is like the salwar but is tight fitting at the hips, thighs and ankles.
The lehanga:
Apart from the sari's, women in some regions wear a kind of pleated skirt known as the ghagra or lehanga. This skirt is tied around the waist and thus leaves the back and midriff bare. This dress also has a choli. The choli is covered by a length of cloth known as "odhni" or "dupatta".
Men's traditional clothing:
The traditional attire of men includes: Sherwani, Lungi, Dhoti and Kurta Pajama.
The sherwani:
It is a coat like garment, worn by men, which is tight and close to the body. It is usually knee-length or longer and opens in front with the help of buttons. Below this men wear a garment, which is baggy and wide at the top but tight around the legs and ankles. It is considered as a very elegant dress for men and mostly worn only during ceremonies.
The lungi:
The lungi had originated in the south and is still common there. Today men and women wear it in the same fashion. It is simply a long length of material worn around the thighs like a sarong.
The dhoti:
A dhoti is a longer version of a lungi. It has an additional length of material to be pulled up between the legs.
The kurta-pyjama:
The Kurta is a knee length shirt, which is worn, mostly in white or pastel colors. Elderly people usually wore it, because they looked decent in it. Today you find Kurtas made out of the most varied colors and fabrics. Pyjama-are nothing but loose trousers which you tie around the waist with a string. It is traditionally white in color.
Hindu Music
Hindu music is also called as sangeet. Music is believed to have mythological roots and is associated with the heavenly singers, called the Gandharvas. The first person to practice this art form was Narada. The oldest texts associated with music are the Sama Veda, which consists of melodies, which are recited, in the form of hymns during ritual sacrifice. Music is considered as a means of moral or spiritual connection rather than mere entertainment. There are three key elements in the music discipline
The guru - coming in parampara where the disciple becomes the successor
Vinaya - humility, this is one of the key ingredients expected from a disciple
Sadhana -practice of what is being taught regularly
Hindu music is based on two main things called
Raga, the melodic scale
Tala, the rhythm
Both Raga and Tala chosen carefully invokes the right mood (rasa). In discussing the aesthetics of dance and music, Bharata Muni coined the concept of nava-rasa, (nine principle "moods" or "tastes.)" During the Bhakhi movement, emphasis was on spiritual emotion, so worship was integrated into music. It was considered not only adoration but a means towards a higher consciousness. Tansen is also another important person remembered because he was believed to perform miracles through his singing.
Common instruments used for Hindu music includes drums, such as the tables mridangas, the manjira and the harmonium. Classical instruments include, tabla, include the flute, vina, sitar, sarangi, santoor, and shenai
The music of India is considered monodic. Its tone is divided into 22 segments called srutis. The basic scales in Hindu music are sa-grama. Other scales are derived from the basic srutis by the sharping or flatting of some of the tones. Melody is based on the system of ragas, and is used as the basis for improvisation.There are many ragas, and there are sets of rules for improvisation in that raga.
Each raga is attributed with certain ethical and emotional properties, and is also associated with a certain season and a certain time of day. Ragas are also associated with magical powers. For example if a raga associated with darkness is sung in the middle of the day then it can even bring darkness upon the earth. In the performance of the ragas, lots of importance is attached to the gamakas, (ornaments) of music. Music is based on very complex rhythmic patterns, called talas, which are combined in the most innovative ways.
The oldest instrument is the Drum and there are several types in it. The most important instrument is the Veena. A similar instrument is the sitar, the most commonly used instrument in India. In addition, various types of bagpipe, lute, fiddle, oboe, trumpet, flute, cymbal, and gong have been known in India. Many of the instruments are of Islamic origin
Hindu Art
Hinduism is a conglomeration of a wide variety of beliefs and Infact, it is unique in its tolerance of diversity. Roots of this religion have been since 4000 years in India, and as it developed it absorbed many beliefs and practices of various kinds of people. Assimilation happened differently for different parts of India.
The Hindu religion is a great repository of heterogeneity of beliefs. Worship of different kinds of deities is a very personal choice, and that aspect of Hindu practice is reflected in the number of different Hindu temples and their sculptural beliefs.
A man who has no knowledge of music, literature, or art is believed to be no better than a beast. Hindu's always believed art to be a key to salvation or ultimate release that is sought by all good Hindus. There is a kind of a holistic feel about Indian art; it is a unity of many forms and artistic experiences.
Different forms of hindu art:
Art rules every part of Indian life, and is found in every reference of ancient Indian Civilization. Indian art is considered a disciplined style of worship and self-restraint. Hindu art can also be thought of as India's oldest indigenous science.
Sometimes lord Shiva, is visually represented as "King of Dance" or Nataraja. This form of Shiva is considered as the most remarkable symbol of divine powers, which was ever created by Indian artistic genius.
Indian artists have frozen the beauty of human bodies in various shapes with the help of stone and bronze for around 5,000 years. It is difficult to name only a single person or persons among the geniuses who brought gods to life in places like the Ellora, Ajanta, Elephanta and Karli caves.
The transition from cave excavation and carvings on the Hindu temples are depicted dramatically and powerfully at Ellora. Ellora is an entire mountain which has been literally shaped out over many centuries by devoted artists. These artists created and "extracted" Lord Shiva's Mount Kailas temple within that enormous rock dome.
Ellora's Kailas cave temple is still one of the few beautiful monuments of art and Hindu devotion. The carvings on some of the walls and pillars is magnificent. No other work on stone or in any other material are as fine. But still what remains a mystery is what tools have been used to make the very hard and tough stone as it is to be seen on the present day.
Indian art is related to Hindu religion and philosophy. It is hard to appreciate the Indian art unless one has insight into the ideals that govern the Indian minds. In the Indian art there is mostly a religious element, a looking beyond.
The beautiful carvings of the Hindu temples, the beautiful wall paintings of Ajanta, or the intriguing art of cave sites and the sophisticated temple building tradition, the Indian Hindu culture offers a good visual feast
www.ShopaMagic.com
www.onssolutions.com
Monday, 19 September 2011
Four Purusharthas
If you are new to Hinduism, you might have a question in your mind that how to live an ideal life as a Hindu. Is it always necessary to denounce the normal life and become an ascetic to acquire salvation? What are the aims of a Hindu’s life?
According to Vedas, there are four aims of a Hindu’s life
1. Dharma.
2. Artha.
3. Kama.
4. Moksha.
We will discuss all these four aims in detail in this article.
1. Dharma:
Dharma literally means religion or law but here it actually means righteousness i.e. duty towards the society, duty towards the family, duty towards the humanity. So, one has to observe Dharma while living in society by respecting the laws of society and doing the right things.
2. Artha:
Artha means wealth or the things related to earning money. This does not at all mean that Hinduism advocates acquisition of health only but Hinduism understands the importance of money in a person’s life. To live life happily as a common person, you need money but this money should be acquired by honest methods only. If there is a clash between Dharma and Artha, Dharma should be given more priority than Artha.
3. Kama:
Kama means pleasure, especially “sexual pleasure.” The word Kama here also means the pleasure we derive from cultural pursuits, sports, and other creative activities which help us enjoy the life.
People know Hinduism for spirituality but Hinduism is also a very practical religion. Hinduism honestly appreciates that sexual pleasure is one of the highest and purest pleasures that God had given to human. Sex is, no doubt, an important part of a human’s life and we should accept it wholeheartedly. It is the basic instinct through which procreate ourselves and preserve the human race.
4. Moksha
The Moksha means salvation i.e. liberation of the soul from the cycle of birth and rebirth. Hinduism believes in reincarnation. What we are today is the result of our past life Karma and what we would be in the next life would be the result of what we do in the present life. Our soul thus gets trapped in the cycle of birth and rebirth. Therefore, Moksha is necessary to liberate the soul from this cycle. Moksha is the ultimate aim of a Hindu’s life.
Hinduism not only tells the aims of life but also tells how to achieve them. A Hindu’s life is therefore divided in four stages or Asramas to achieve these aims.
www.ShopaMagic.com
www.onssolutions.com
According to Vedas, there are four aims of a Hindu’s life
1. Dharma.
2. Artha.
3. Kama.
4. Moksha.
We will discuss all these four aims in detail in this article.
1. Dharma:
Dharma literally means religion or law but here it actually means righteousness i.e. duty towards the society, duty towards the family, duty towards the humanity. So, one has to observe Dharma while living in society by respecting the laws of society and doing the right things.
2. Artha:
Artha means wealth or the things related to earning money. This does not at all mean that Hinduism advocates acquisition of health only but Hinduism understands the importance of money in a person’s life. To live life happily as a common person, you need money but this money should be acquired by honest methods only. If there is a clash between Dharma and Artha, Dharma should be given more priority than Artha.
3. Kama:
Kama means pleasure, especially “sexual pleasure.” The word Kama here also means the pleasure we derive from cultural pursuits, sports, and other creative activities which help us enjoy the life.
People know Hinduism for spirituality but Hinduism is also a very practical religion. Hinduism honestly appreciates that sexual pleasure is one of the highest and purest pleasures that God had given to human. Sex is, no doubt, an important part of a human’s life and we should accept it wholeheartedly. It is the basic instinct through which procreate ourselves and preserve the human race.
4. Moksha
The Moksha means salvation i.e. liberation of the soul from the cycle of birth and rebirth. Hinduism believes in reincarnation. What we are today is the result of our past life Karma and what we would be in the next life would be the result of what we do in the present life. Our soul thus gets trapped in the cycle of birth and rebirth. Therefore, Moksha is necessary to liberate the soul from this cycle. Moksha is the ultimate aim of a Hindu’s life.
Hinduism not only tells the aims of life but also tells how to achieve them. A Hindu’s life is therefore divided in four stages or Asramas to achieve these aims.
www.ShopaMagic.com
www.onssolutions.com
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